(Inspired by Mallory and Adams, Appendix 1)
Notation: > means "developed into", → means "was borrowed into". For languages written in non-roman scripts, I give IPA transcriptions of the respective recordings. A superscript minus, e.g. [tˉ] indicates unaspirated release; [b̥] is also unaspirated and voiceless, but laxer than [pˉ]; [ʰ] indicates slight voiceless aspiration, and [ʱ] indicates (breathy-)voiced aspiration. Long, strong aspiration is transcribed as [h].
| Proto-Indo-European | Germanic (Old English > Modern English) |
Celtic (e.g. Irish) |
Italic (e.g. Latin) |
Baltic (e.g. Lithuanian) |
Slavic (e.g. Bosnian-Croatian-Montenegrin-Serbian) |
Iranian (e.g. Persian) |
Indic (e.g. Sanskrit) |
Greek (e.g. Ancient > Modern) | Albanian | Armenian | |
| *p [pˉ] | *polh₁-uo [polwo] | [f] fealu > fallow (colour) | [ɸ] > ∅ (i.e. deleted) Proto-Celtic *ɸlētos > liath |
[pˉ] palleō > Italian pallido | [pˉ] pilkas, Latvian pelēks |
[pˉ] plav, Slovenian plav [plɐʊ] |
Proto-Indo-Iranian *palHtas |
[pˉ] पलित [palitɐ] | [pˉ] πολιός [pˉoliós] | [b̥] plak [blɐk] | Various e.g. ∅ (i.e. deleted) ալիք [ɐlikʰ] |
| *bʰ [bʱ] | *bʰuh₂ [bʱuɐ̆] | [b] bēon > [pˉ] be |
[pˉ] bí, [pʱ] Welsh bod |
[f] fuī > Spanish fui | [b] būti, Latvian būt | [b] biti | [b] بودن [bu:dán] | [bʱ] भू [bʱu:] | [ph] φυσικός [phʉsikós] → [f] English physics | [b] botë | [bʱ]~[pʰ] բոյս [bʱuĭs] |
| *t [tʰ] | *tr̥s- "dry" | [θ] þurst > thirst | [tʰ] tír | [tʰ] terra > Italian terra |
[tʰ] trokšti | [tʰ] تشنگی [teʃne] |
[tʰ] तृष्णा [tr̩ʂɳɑ:] | [t] τέρσομαι térsomai | [tʰ] ter | [tʰ] թառամել tʰarramel | |
| *d [d] | *déḱm̩- | [tʰ] tien > ten | [tˉ] deich |
[d] decem | [d] dešimt | [d] deset | [d] ده [dɐh] | [d] दश [dɐshɐ] | [d] δέκα [dékɐ] |
[ð] dhjetë | [tˉ] տասը [tɑsə] |
| *dʰ [dʱ] | *dʰur- ~ *dʰwor- | [tˉ] duru > door |
[tˉ] doras | [f] foris | [d] durys, Latvian durvis |
[d] dvor | [d] Ossetian дуар [dwʌr] | [d] in द्वार् [dvɑ:r], but regularly [dʱ] as in धव् [dʱʌv] "dew" | [th] θύρα [thʉ́ra:] > [θ] Modern Greek [θíɾɐ] | [d] derë | [tˉ] դուռ [tˉuɾə̆ħ] |
| *ḱ [k̟ʲʰ] |
*ḱr̥-n- [k̟ʲr̩n] | [h] horn > horn | [kʰ] cearn | [kʰ] cornū, cervus | [ʃ]>[s] širšė, Latvian sirsenis |
*[cç]>[tʃ]>[ts]>[s] srna | [s] سرنا [sornʌ] |
[ʃ] शृङ्ग [ʃṛ́ŋgʌ] |
[kʰ] κέρας [kʰéras] | Often [θ] but here [kʰ] krye [kʰɾy:ʔɛ] |
[s] սար [sɑɹ] |
| *ǵ [g̟ʲ] | *ǵnéh₃- [g̟nəŏ] | [kʰ] cnawan > know |
[k] gnúis |
[g] cognitō | [ʒ]>[z] žinau, Latvian zināt |
[z] znam |
[z] Balochi زان [zʌn] | [dʒ] Urdu جاننا [dʒʌ:nʌ:] | [g] γνώση [gnóse] → English agnostic |
Often [ð] but here *ǵn > [ɲ] njoh | [dʒ]~[tʃˉ] ճանաչել [tʃˉɑnɑtʃʰel] |
| *ǵʰ [g̟ʲʱ] | *ǵʰelh₃- [g̟ʱel—], *ǵʰlh₃-to- [g̟ʱl̩t—] |
[kˉ] gold |
[g] gealach | [h] helvus, [f] fel |
[g]>[ʒ]>[z] geltonas, žalias, Latvian zelts, zaļš |
[z] zelena |
[z] زرد [zærd] | [h] हरि [hɐ́ɾi] |
[kh] χλωρός [khlɔ:ros] → English chlorine | [d] diell | |
| *k [kʰ] | *ker-p |
[h] harvest |
[kʰ] ciorraigh | [kʰ] carpō > Italian carpire | [kʰ] kerpa | *[cç]>[tʃʰ]>[ts] crpsti |
[x] Kurdish خەرمان [xermæn] | [kʰ] Punjabi ਕਿਰਪਾਨ [kʰirpɑ:n] | [kʰ] καρπός Ancient and Modern [kʰarpós] | [kʰ] քերել [k̟ʰʲeɾel] | |
| *g [g] | *gr-on- | [kʰ] crān > crane | [kˉ] grús (←Latin grūs), Welsh garan |
[g] Latin grūs > Italian gru | [g]~[dz̥] gervė, Latvian dzērve |
*[dʒ]>[ʒ]
Bulgarian жерав [ʒerav] |
[kʰ] کلنگ [kʰolæŋgʲ] |
गर्जति gárjati |
[kˉ] γέρανος [kˉeranos] |
kurrillë | [kʰ] կռունկ [kʰruŋkʰ] |
| *gʰ [gʱ] | *gʰordʰ-o- | [kˉ] garden,
[j] yard |
[kˉ] gort, Welsh gardd |
[h] hortus | [g] gardas | [g]>[ɦ] grad, Ukrainian город [ɦɔrɔd] |
[cçʰ] کرت [cçʰærtʰ] |
[g] गृह [gṛhɐ] | [kh] χόρτος [khɔrtos] | gardh | |
| *kʷ [k̟ʷʰ] | *kʷel- | [hw]>[w] hweol > wheel |
[x] (bua)chaill | [kʰ] colō > Italian col(tivare) | [k̟ʲʰ] kelias | [kʰ] Ukrainian колесо [kʰoɫesŏ] | [tʃʰ] چریدن [tʃʰæɾidɐn] |
[tʃʰ] Hindi चलते [tʃʰɐl̪t̪e] | [k(ʰ)], [pʱ] (βου)κόλος [bu:kólos], πόλος [pʱólos] |
[s] sjell | |
| *gʷ [gw] | *gʷem- | [kʰ] come |
[w] veniō | [g]~[dz] gimti, Latvian dzimt |
[g]>[ɦ] Polish gać, Ukrainian гать [ɦatʲ] |
*[dʒ]>[z] زمان [zɐmɑn] | [g] गमति [gɐmɐtʰi] | [b] βαίνω [bɑenɔ:] | [g] gatuaj | [k] եկ [jekʰ] | |
| *gʷʰ [gʷʱ] | *h₃nogʷʰ- [ŏ̥nogʷʱ] | [g]>[j] næġel > nail,
German Nagel |
[gʱ] ionga, [gʷ]>[w] Welsh ewin | [gʷ]>[g] unguis > French ongle | [g] nagas | [kʰ] nokat, [g] Russian ноготь [noɡətʲ] |
[x] ناخن [nɑ:xon] |
[kʰ] नख [nɐkhʌ] | [kˉ] ὄνυξ [ónʉks] → English onyx |
[gʷʱ] եղունգ [jɛruŋɡʷʱ] | |
| *s |
*sed- | [s] sit |
[s] suí [sˠi:] | [s] sedeō > Italian sedere | [s] sėdėti | [s] Slovenian sedeti | [ʃ] نشستن [neʃastan] |
[s] सीदति [si:dɐtɪ] | [h] ἕζομαι [hétsomɑɪ] | [s] նստել [nəsteɻ̥] [h] հեծնել hetsnel |
|
| *y [j] |
*yug-o- [jugo] | [j] yoke |
[i] cuing |
[j] iugum > Spanish yugo | [j] jungas |
[i] Bulgarian, Macedonian иго [igɔ] | [j] یوغ [joɢ] | [j] योग [jo:gʌ] → English yoga | *[dz] > [zd] > [z] ζυγόν [zdygón] > Modern Greek [ziɣón] |
*[j]>[l] լուծ [luts] |
|
| *w [w] |
*h₂weh₁nt- [ɐwent] | [w] the wind |
[gw] Welsh gwynt |
[w] > [v] ventus > Sicilian ventu |
[v] vėjas |
[v] Serbian, Macedonian vetar |
[gw]>[b] باد [bɑ:d], Balochi گوات [gwɑ:t] |
[v] वाति [vɑ́:tɑ], Hindi वायु [vɐ:ju] |
[w] is lost: Proto-Hellenic *[ɐwe:mi] > Classical ἄημι [ɐe:mi] | Often [g], but here lip-rounding in օդ [ɔtʰ] |
|
| *m [m] |
*meh₂tḗr [meħté:r] > [maté:r] | [m] mother | [m] máthair |
[m] māter |
[m] moteris, Latvian māte |
[m] mati |
[m] مادر [modɐɹ̥] | [m] मातृ [mɑ:tr̩] |
[m] μήτηρ [mɛ́:tɛ:ɹ̥] |
[m] motër | [m] մայրիկ [mɑjɾik] |
| *n [n] |
*nokʷt- | [n] night |
[n] Welsh nos |
[n] noctis |
[n] naktis | [n] noć |
[n] नक्तम् [naktʌm] | [n] νυκτός [nʉktós] > Modern Greek νύχτα [nɪxta] |
[n] natë | ||
| *l [l] | *leuk- [lɘʊk] | [l] light | [ɬ] Welsh llewych |
[l] lūceō, lūna | [l] Latvian lauks |
[l] Slovene luč |
[r] Balochi روچ [ro:ʧ] | [r] रोचते [ro:ʧɐte] | [l] λευκός [leukós] |
[l] lakuriq | [l] լույս [luĭs], լուսին [lusin] |
| *r [r] | *h₃reǵ- [ŏreg-tʰo] |
[r]>[ɹ] riht > right |
[ɹ] rí, [r] Scottish Gaelic rìgh |
[r] regō,
rēx, Spanish regla |
[r] regėti, Latvian redzēt |
[r]~[ɹ] Balochi راست [rɑ:st], Persian [ɹɑ:st] |
[ɾ] राजन् [ɾɑ:ʤən] |
[ɾ] ὀρεκτός [ɔrektós] |
|||
| *h₁ [h]~[ɘ̥] | *h₁roudʰ- [hroʊdʱ] | Regularly lost red |
Regularly lost rua |
Regularly lost ruber |
Relic [ʰ] in [ʰ]raudona, Latvian [ʱ]ruds |
Sometimes [h] سیاه [sijɑh] “black” | Regularly lost रुधिर [‒ɾudʱiɾʌ] |
Regularly [ɘ] ἐρυθρός [ɘruthrós] |
|||
| *h₁reug- [ɘ̥rɛʊg] | Regularly lost reek |
Regularly lost ructāre |
Regularly lost raugėti |
Regularly lost, e.g. pod-rigivanje, but note [o] in Bulgarian оригвам [origvɐm] |
Regularly [ɐ] اروغ [ɐroɣ] | Regularly [ɘ] ἐρεύγομαι [ɘréʊgomai] |
Regularly lost, e.g. ‒regj |
Regularly lost, but note [o] in ործկալ orckal |
|||
| *h₂ [ħ]~[ɐ̥] |
*h₂s-tér [ħɐ̥stér] |
Regularly lost star |
Regularly lost Welsh seren |
Regularly lost stēlla > Italian stella |
Regularly [ɐ] Kurmanji [ɐstirə] | Sometimes [h] अहम् [ʌhʌ́m] “I am” |
Regularly [ɐ] ἀστήρ [ɐstér]; sometimes [hɐ] ἁρμός [hɐrmos] “arm” |
Sometimes [h] hithër < *h₂eydʰ- “to burn” |
Regularly [ɐ] աստղ [ástəʁ]; sometimes [h] հողմ [hɔʁm] < *h₂enh₁mos “wind” | ||
| *h₂e-h₂s- [ħaχs] | [a] coloring in ash | [ɑ] coloring in Irish áith | [a] coloring in āra | Sometimes [x]~[χ]~[k] خاکی [xɑki] → English khaki | Regularly [ɐ] आस ā́sa | ||||||
| *h₃ [ʕ̰]~[ɔ̰̆] |
*h₃éu-i-s [howis] | [o] coloring in eow > ewe | [o] coloring in Old Irish oí > Scottish
Gaelic aoghaire [ɯːɾʲə] |
[o] coloring in ovis | avis | [o] coloring in ovca | Regularly [ɐ] अवि [ɐvi] | Regularly [ŏ] ὄις [oís] | Sometimes [h] հովիվ [hovif] “shepherd” |
||
*b is omitted because it was extremely rare (i.e. is postulated in very few words) in Proto-Indo-European.