4. Phonetics and Phonology of Proto-Indo-European

4.1. Phonological contrasts in Proto-Indo-European

The foundation of a phonological analysis of any language is a collection of minimal contrasts between words. The following minimal pairs are exemplified in the Audio Etymological Dictionary. More details concerning the phonological evidence and phonetic details for them are presented in subsequent pages.

1. Consonantal contrasts

b vs s

*dʰeub- > English deep

*dʰeus‑ > English deer

bʰ vs d

*s-keubʰ > English shove

*s-keud > English shoot

*h₁webʰ‑ > English weave

*h₁wedʰ- [ə̥wedʰ] > English wed

bʰ vs gʰ vs g vs k

*leubʰ- > Bosnian ljubav “love”

*leug‑ > English lock

*leuk‑ [lɘʊk] > English light (brightness)

bʰ vs *gʷʰ

*bʰer- > English bear

*gʷʰer‑ > Ancient Greek θερμός thermos “warm”

bʰ vs g⁽ʷ⁾ʰ

*h₃nobʰ‑ > Sanskrit नभ्य nabhya “navel”, English nav(el)

*h₃nog⁽ʷ⁾ʰ- [ŏ̥nogʷʱ] > English nail

bʰ vs l

*bʰendʰ‑ > English band, Persian بند band

*lendʰ- [lendʱ] > English land

bʰ vs w

*bʰeid‑ > English bite

*weid- > English -wise

d vs zero

*kʷod > English what

*kʷo- > English who

*weid- > English -wise

*wei > English we

d vs dʰ

*ḱerd [k̟ʲerd] > English heart

*ḱerdʰ-eh₂- > English herd

*med-e‑ > English mete

*medʰ-u‑ > English mead

d vs gʰ

*perd-e- > English fart

*pergʰ- [pɘrgʱ] > Lithuanian Perkūnas

d vs ǵʰ vs l vs s vs i

*wed‑ > English wet

*weǵʰ- [weg̟ʰ] > English weigh

*wel- > English will

*wes > Albanian vesh

*wei > English we

d vs ǵʰ vs s

*wod-r > English water

*woǵʰ‑ > English wain

*wos > English wear

d vs gʷ

*dem‑ > English tame

*gʷem‑ > English come

d vs h₁ vs kʷ

*sed‑ > English set

*seh₁- [se:] > English to sow, seed

*sekʷ‑ > Sanskrit सच् sach- “be associated with”

d vs ḱ vs r

*pōd- > English foot

*poḱ‑s-mn̥ > Persian پشم pashm “wool”

*por-e- > English fare

d vs r

*to-d > English that

*to-r > English there

d vs m vs n

*gʷed‑ > Sanskrit गदति gad(ati) “to speak”

*gʷem‑ > English come

*gʷen‑ > English queen

d vs p

*dolh₁‑ > English tell

*polh₁-tos [polɪtos] > Sanskrit पलित palita “grey”

d vs s

*h₁ed- [ɛd] > English eat

*h₁es-mi [əsmi] > English am

*h₁es-ti [esti] > Sanskrit अस्ति asti “is”

d vs t vs r

*kʷod > English what

*kʷoteros [kwotero—] > English whether

*kʷor > English where

dʰ vs ǵ

*dʰeus‑ > English deer

*ǵeus- [g̟ju:s] > English choose

dʰ vs ǵʰ vs s

*dʰeh₁- > Sanskrit धा dhaa “(something) done, put down”

*ǵʰeh₁- [g̟ʱe:] > English go

*seh₁- [se:] > English to sow, seed

dʰ vs k

*dʰouh₂ [dʱoʊɐ]  > English dew

*kouh₂- [kouɐ̥] > English hew

dʰ vs s

*dʰwor‑ > English door

*s-wor- > English swear, (an)swer

g vs zero

*h₂weg-s- [ħwegs] > English wax

*h₂wes- [ħwes] ≈ [ɐ̥wes]> English was

g vs h₁ vs h₃

*bʰleg‑, possibly related to *bʰleiǵ‑ > Lithuanian blizgė “shone”

*bʰleh₁- [bʱle:], [bʱleə] > English bleat

*bʰleh₃-e- [bʱlo:ə], earlier [bʱléŏə] > English blow

g vs dʰ

*h₁reug- [ɘ̥rɛʊg] > English reek

*h₁reudʰ- [hrəʊdʱ] > Latvian [h]ruds “red”

g vs k

*h₂eng- [ħæŋg]> English ank(le)

*h₂enk- [ħaŋk] > English ang(le)

g vs s

*h₂eug- [hɑug] > English eke

*h₂eus- [hɛus] > English east

gʰ vs ḱ

*gʰlei‑ > English glee

*ḱlei‑ > Sanskrit श्रयते shrayate

gʰ vs k vs t

*mrǵʰ-u‑ > English mirth

*mrk [mr̩k] > English morn

*mŕ-to- [mr̩to] > English murder

gʰ vs n vs t

*mogʰ‑ > English may

*mon-eh₂- [monɐ̤ɦ] > English mane

*mot‑ > English moth

gʷ vs m vs s vs w

*gʷed‑ > Sanskrit गदति gad(ati) “to speak”

*med-e‑ > English mete

*sed‑ > English set

*wed‑ > English wet

gʷ vs p

*gʷreh₂- [gʷrɐ:] > Scottish Gaelic brà “quern”

*preh₂- [pʰreɐ] > English first

ḱ vs zero

*ḱwoid > English wheat

*woid- > Bosnian vedeti “to see, know”

*deḱm̩‑ > English ten

*dem‑ > English tame

ḱ vs k vs kʷ

*ḱel- [k̟ʲel] > English hall

*kel‑ [kel] > English hold

*kʷel- > English wheel

ḱ vs kʷ

*ḱieh₁- [k̟ʲe:] > English hue

*kʷieh₁- [kʷie:], stem of *kʷieh₁-to- [kʷie:to] > Persian شاد shad “happy”. Evidence for the initial *kʷ is seen in the derived form *kʷih₁- [kʷi:] > English while.

*ḱor-h₂- > Lithuanian karvė “cow”

*kʷor > English where

*ḱr̥-n- [k̟ʲr̩n] > English horn

*kʷr̥mis- [kwɹ̩m] > English worm

ḱ vs m

*ḱonk-e‑ > English hang, Sanskrit शङ्क śaṅka “doubt”

*monk‑, o-grade of *menk‑ > English mingle

ḱ vs p

*ḱerd [k̟ʲerd] > English heart

*perd-e- > English fart

ḱ vs t

*ḱer-h₂- > English hart

*terh₂- [terɐ̥] stem of *trh₂- [trħa] > English through

k vs m

*s-ker‑ > English shear

*smer- > Sanskrit स्मरति smarati “remember”

k vs s

*h₁eih₁-ko- [heiko] > Urdu یخ yakh “ice”

*h₁éih₁-so [heiso] > English ice

*kʷor > English where

*por-e- > English fare

*to-r > English there

kʷ vs s vs t

*kʷod > English what

*sod‑ > English sat

*to-d > English that

kʷ vs t

*penkʷe > English five

*pént-e‑ > English find

kʷ vs w

*kʷel- > English wheel

*wel-  > English will

l vs zero

*pleḱ-t‑ > English flax

*peḱ-t-e > English fight

*pelth₂- [peltɐ] > English field

*péth₂- [pétɐ] > Modern Greek πέταλο petalo “petal, horseshoe”

*selh₁‑ [sele] > Ancient Greek ἑλεῖν helein “taken” (cf. sell)

*seh₁- [se:] > English to sow, seed

m vs n

*mer > English mourn

*ner [neɾ̥] > English narrow

*h₂emǵʰ-u- [ħaŋgʱu] > English hang(nail)

*h₂eng- [ħæŋg] > Persian انگشت ang(usht) “finger” 

*melh₁‑ [melə] > English meal

*pelh₁‑ [pelə] > Latvian pelēks “grey” (cf. fallow)

*selh₁‑ [sele] > Ancient Greek ἑλεῖν helein “taken” (cf. sell)

n vs zero

*h₂up-no > English oven

*h₁upo [hupo] > English up

n vs k vs w

*h₁oi-no-s [oinos] > English one

*h₁oi-kos [hoikos] > Assamese এক ek

*h₁oi-wos [hoiwos] > Pashto یو yau

n vs r

*tenh₂‑ [tenɐ̥] > English thunder

*terh₂- [terɐ̥] > English through

*tn̥h₂-u- [tn̩:u] > English thin

*trh₂- [trħa] > English through

n vs s

*trno [tr̩nõ] > English thorn

*tr̥s-no‑ > Balochi تُنَّگ tunnag

n vs t

-neh₂ in *wĺ̥h₁-neh₂- [wl̩naħ] > Macedonian волна volna “wool”

-téh₂ in *ml̥h₂-téh₂ [ml̩:teħ] > English mould

n vs u

*bʰendʰ‑ > English band, Persian بند band

*bʰeudʰ‑ > Sanskrit बुद्ध buddha, English “bid”

p vs zero

*pterh₂ [pterħ] > English fern

*terh₂- [terɐ̥], stem of *trh₂- [trħa] > English through

p vs s

*pōd- > English foot

*so:d-o‑ > English soot

r vs zero

*krouh₂- [kɾoʊħḁ] > English raw

*kouh₂-e- [kóuɐ̥] > English hew

*preh₂- [pʰreɐ] > English first

*peh₂- [peħ], [peɐ̥] > English food

r vs l

*ḱer‑ > Northern Kurdish ser “head”

*ḱel- [k̟ʲel] > English hall

s vs zero

*s-teg‑ > English stake

*teg‑ > English thatch

*h₂oisk- [ħoisk] > English ask

*h₂e-h₂oik- [ɐħɑik̟ʲ] > English owe, own

*h₂sous- [ɑ̥sous], [ħsous] > English sear, sere

*h₂ous [hɔus] > English ear, Lithuanian aus(is) “ear”

*h₂ṓus-ih₁, “ears” > Persian هوش‎ hoosh “intellect”

*h₂ōu-ió- [χɐuio] > English egg

*tuh₂ [tuɐ], [tuɐ̥] > English thou

*tuh₂s-ont- [tuɐsɵnt] > Croatian tisuća “thousand”

s vs t

*ḱleu-s [klɐʊs] > English lis(ten), Lithuanian klaus(yti)

*ḱleu-t [klɐʊt] > English loud

*meh₁-nos [me:nos] > English moon

*meh₁-not [me:not] > English month

t vs u

*peḱ-t-e > English fight

*péḱu > English fee

2. Contrasts involving laryngeals

h₁ vs h₂

*melh₁‑ [melə] > English meal

*melh₂‑ [melħ] > Ancient Greek μέλας melas “black” (cf. melanoma)

*pelh₁‑ [pelə] > Latvian pelēks “grey” (cf. fallow)

*pelh₂- [pelɐ], e-grade of *polh₂- [polɐ] > Polish pole “field”

*polh₁‑ [polɘ̥] > Ancient Greek πολιός ‎‎polios “grey” cf. fallow

*polh₂- [polɐ] > Polish pole “field”

h₁ vs h₃

*bʰleh₁- [bʱle:], [bʱleə] > English bleat

*bʰleh₃-e- [bʱlo:ə], earlier [bʱléŏə] > English blow

h₁ vs kʷ

*wĺ̥h₁-neh₂- [wl̩naħ] > Macedonian волна volna “wool”

*wĺ̥kʷ- [wl̩kʷ] > English wolf

*seh₁- [se:] > English to sow, seed

*sekʷ‑ > Sanskrit सच् sach- “be associated with”

h₁ vs p

*selh₁‑ [selɘ] > Ancient Greek ἑλεῖν helein “taken” (cf. sell)

*selp‑ > Ossetian царв tsarv “clarified butter” (cf. salve)

h₁ vs u

*ǵenh₁- [g̟ʲenə] > English kin

*ǵenu [g̟enu] > English chin

h₁ vs s

*h₂weh₁- [ɐwe:] > Ancient Greek ἄημι aemi “to blow” (cf. wind)

*h₂wes- [ħwes] ≈ [ɐ̥wes]> English was

But note that h₁ < s in *h₁upo [hupo], later form of *supo > English up

3. Further examples of contrasts, in not-quite-minimal pairs

bʰ vs ḱw vs w

*bʰeid‑ > English bite

*ḱweid- > English white

*weid- > English -wise

bʰ vs p; ǵʰ vs gʰ

*bʰerǵʰ‑ > English barrow

*pergʰ- [pɘrgʱ] > Lithuanian Perkūnas

bʰ vs m

*h₃nobʰ‑ > Sanskrit नभ्य nabhya “navel”, English nav(el)

*h₃nh̥₃men [ŏ̥nómen] > English name

bʰ vs dʰl

*sth₂-bʰo- [stɐbʰo] > English staff

*sth₂-dʰlo- [stɐdʱlo] > English stall

bʰl vs dʰ

*bʰleh₁- [bʱle:], [bʱleə] > English bleat

*dʰeh₁- > Sanskrit धा dhaa “(something) done, put down”

*ǵʰeh₁- [g̟ʱe:] > English go

*seh₁- [se:] > English to sow, seed

bʰr vs m

*bʰréh₂tēr [bʱráte:r] > English brother

*meh₂tḗr [maté:r] > English mother

dr vs rd

*ud-r-o‑ > English otter

*urd-i‑ > English root

elp vs pel

*selp‑ > Ossetian царв tsarv “clarified butter” (cf. salve)

*spel-o‑ > English spell

eid vs eudʰ

*bʰeid‑ > English bite

*bʰeudʰ‑ > Sanskrit बुद्ध buddha, English “bid”

ǵ vs h₁t

*wr̥ǵ- [wɹ̩g̟̊] > English work

*wr̥h₁t- [wɹ̩e̥tʰ] > English word

ǵʰ vs h₁ǵ

*bʰerǵʰ‑ > English barrow

*bʰerh₁ǵ‑ > English birch

ǵ vs h₁r

*ǵebʰ- [ʤeb] > English jowl

*h₁rebʰ- [hrebʱ] > English rib

gʷʰ vs ǵʰw

*gʷʰer‑ > Ancient Greek θερμός thermos “warm”

*ǵʰwēr‑ > English fierce

*h₂yuh₁n- [ɐju:n] > Persian جوان javon “young”

*syuh₁- [sju:] > English sew

k vs t

*h₂enk-ul-ó- [aŋk], earlier [ħaŋk] > English ang(le)

*h₂entero‑ [antero] > English other, Sanskrit अन्तर antara “other”

ḱ vs (s)k

*ḱer‑ > Northern Kurdish ser “head”

*s-ker‑ > English shear

ḱ vs kʷ

*poiḱ‑o- > English foe

*loikʷ‑ > English loan

kʷ vs sw

*kʷor > English where

*s-wor- [swor] > English swear, (an)swer

l vs r

*wĺ̥kʷ- [wl̩kʷ] > English wolf

*wr̥ǵ- [wɹ̩g̟̊] > English work

m vs n

*ḱr̥-n- [k̟ʲr̩n] > English horn

*kʷr̥mis- [kwɹ̩m] > English worm

p vs l

*poiḱ‑o- > English foe

*loikʷ‑ > English loan

w vs zero

*ǵʰwēr > English fierce

*ǵʰerh₁‑ [g̟ɦerə] > English yearn

Prosodically similar structures with w vs m, h₁ vs h₂

*wĺ̥h₁-neh₂- [wl̩naħ] > Macedonian волна volna “wool”

*ml̥h₂-téh₂ [ml̩:teħ] > English mould

4. Vocalic constrasts

4.1 Ablaut contrasts

o vs e

*bʰlog‑ > English black

*bʰleg‑, possibly related to *bʰléiǵ‑ > Lithuanian blizgė “shone”

*bʰodʰh₂ > bed

*bʰedʰh₂‑ > Lithuanian badýti

*dʰoh₁- [dʱo:] > English do

*dʰéh₁ > Bosnian nedelja “not-doing” i.e. “Sunday; week”

*ǵól-to- > English cold

*ḱel-to- > Persian سرد sard “cold”

*gʷʰor-mo- > warm

*gʷʰer‑ > Ancient Greek θερμός thermos “warm”

*h₁webʰ‑ > web

*ḱor-h₂- > Lithuanian karvė “cow”

*ḱer-h₂- > English hart

*monk‑ > English mingle

*menk‑ > Bosnian mek “soft”

*polh₁‑yos > Ancient Greek πολιός ‎‎polios “grey” cf. fallow

*pelh₁‑ [pelə] > Latvian pelēks “grey” (cf. fallow)

*sod‑ > English sat

*sed‑ > English set

*wos > English wear

*wes > Albanian vesh “to dress”

oi vs ei

*ḱwoid > English wheat

*ḱweid‑ ~ *ḱweit‑ > Persian سفید sefid “white”

*loikʷ‑ > English loan

*leikʷ‑ > Persian ریختن rikh(tan) “pour, spill, sprinkle”

*loip‑ > English leave (over)

*leip‑ > Bosnian ljepilo “glue”

ou vs eu

*h₁roudʰ- [hroʊdʱ] > English red

*h₁reudʰ- [hrəʊdʱ] > Latvian [h]ruds “red”

*krouh₂- [kɾoʊħḁ] > English raw

*kreuh₂- [kɾeʊħ] (sounds more like [kɾeɐħ]) > Ancient Greek κρέας ‎kreas “flesh”

e vs zero

*bʰeudʰ‑ > English bid

*bʰudʰ‑ > English bode

*h₁weidʰh₁- [hweidʱɘ̥] > English wide

*h₁widʰh₁-uh₂- [hwidʱəwaħ] > English widow

*h₂eus- [hɛus] > English east

*h₂us‑ > Sanskrit उषस् ushas “dawn”

*leubʰ- > Bosnian ljubav “love”

*lubʰ‑ > English love, Sanskrit लुभ्यति lubhyati “to desire greatly”

*ml̥h₂-téh₂ [ml̩:teħ] > English mould

*ni-sd-o [nizdo] > English nest

*terh₂‑, *terh₂-kʷe [terɐ̥kwe] > English thorough

*trh₂- [trħa] > Sanskrit तिरस् tiras “through”

e vs ē

*sed‑ > English sit

*sēd-i‑ > English seat

o vs zero

*dʰouh₂ [dʱoʊɐ]  > English dew

*dʰuh₂ [dʱuɐ] > Siraiki dhuul “dust”

*h₂e-h₂oik- [ɐħɑik̟ʲ] > English owe, own

*h₂iḱ- [ħik̟ʲ] > Sanskrit ईष्टे ishte “own”

*h₂ous [hɔus] > English ear

*h₂ṓus-ih₁, “ears” > Persian هوش‎ hoosh “intellect”

4.2 Lexical (not ablaut) vowel contrasts

e vs i

*péḱu  > English fee

*piḱ‑ > Lithuanian piktas “angry”

*wid- > English wit

e vs zero

*te-ge > English thee

*teg‑ > English thatch

i vs zero

*bʰleiǵ‑ > English bleach

*bʰleg‑, possibly related to *bʰleiǵ‑ > Lithuanian blizgė “shone”

*teig > English thistle

*teg‑ > English thatch

*h₂eu-is [ħɐʊɪs] > Latin avis “bird”

*h₂eus- [hɛus] > English east

*wed‑ > English wet

*weid- > English -wise

i vs u

*bʰeid‑ > English bite

*bʰeudʰ‑ > Sanskrit बुद्ध buddha, English “bid”

i vs r

*smei‑ > English smile

*smer- > Sanskrit स्मरति smarati “remember”

ou vs eu

*h₂ous [hɔus] > English ear, Lithuanian aus(is) “ear”

*h₂eu-is [ħɐʊɪs] > Latin avis “bird”

u vs zero

*seh₂l-s > Latvian sāls “salt”

*séh₂ul‑ [sɐʊɫ] > Lithuanian saulė “sun”

u vs. ū

*ud‑, stem of *ud-r-o‑ > English ott(er)

*ūd > English out

5. Variation; possible neutralizations

e ~ u

*te-ge > English thee

~ *tu-ǵe. Evidence for *u comes from the related form *tuh₂-om [tuaom] > Sanskrit त्वम् twam.

*gʰlei‑ > English glee

~ *gʰleu‑ > Bosnian glu(miti) “act, pretend”.

*ḱweid- > English white

~ * ḱweit- > Persian سفید sefid “white”

ǵ ~ ḱ

*ǵól-to-, a form of *ḱel-to- > English cold.

This stem is sometimes reconstructed with plain velar stops, i.e. *kel-, *gel-, *gol-.

The voiced form is supported by inference backwards from Germanic [k]; by Grimm's Law, this comes from Proto-Indo-European *ǵ or *g.

Evidence for the voiceless variant, and for a palatal stop *ḱ, not velar *k, comes from satem languages such as Lithuanian šalta “cold”, Bosnian hlad “shade”.

kʷ ~ p

*h₂ukʷ- [ħukʷ] > Sanskrit उखा ukha “oven”

~ *h₂up-no > English oven

l ~ n

seh₂ul‑ [sɐʊɫ] > Lithuanian saulė “sun”

~ *seh₂un‑ [sɑʊɵn] > sun

*h₂eltero‑ > Latin alter “other”

~ *h₂entero‑ [antero] > English other, Sanskrit अन्तर antara “other”

n ~ r

*wod-n > Sanskrit उदन् udan “water”

~ *wod-r > English water

l̥h́₁ ~ ĺ̥h₁

*wl̥h́₁-neh₂- [wl̩énaħ] > English wool

~ *wĺ̥h₁-neh₂- [wl̩naħ] > Macedonian волна volna “wool”

 t ~ zero

*pelth₂- [peltɐ] > English field

*pelh₂- [pelɐ] ~ *polh₂- [polɐ] > Polish pole “field”

The set of contrasts such as those listed above leads phonologists to propose systems of consonants and vowels as set out and discussed in the following pages.